An Imperial Capital-Vijayanagara
- Anupam Dixit
- Aug 26, 2022
- 9 min read
Updated: Nov 17, 2025
How was the city Hampi/ Vijayanagar discovered?
Colonel Colin Mackenzie prepared the first survey map of the site of Hampi.
The initial information he received was based on the memories of priests of the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampa Devi.
Since 1836, epigraphists began collecting several dozen inscriptions found at this site and other temples at Hampi.
In 1856, photographers began to record the monuments.
In an effort to reconstruct the history of the city and the empire, historians collated information from these sources with accounts of foreign travelers and other literature written in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil and Sanskrit.
Who established Vijaynagar Empire:
According to tradition and epigraphic evidence two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, founded the Vijaynagar Empire in 1336. This empire included territories from Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
The first dynasty, known as the Sangama dynasty, exercised control till 1485. They were displaced by the Saluvas, military commanders, who remained in power till 1503. They were replaced by the Tuluvas and Aravidu dynasty rulers.
Explain the contributions of Krishna deva Raya to the Vijaynagar Empire:
Krishnadevaraya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty.
Krishna deva Raya’s rule was characterized by expansion and consolidation.
This was the time when the land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers was acquired.
He subdued the Gajapati rulers of Orissa (1514) and severe defeats were inflicted on the Sultan of Bijapur.
Krishna deva Raya is credited with building some fine temples and adding impressive Gopurams to many important south Indian temples.
He also founded a suburban township near Vijayanagar called Nagalapuram after his mother.
Some of the most detailed descriptions of Vijaynagar come from his time.
Neighboring states: On their northern frontier, the Vijayanagara kings competed with contemporary rulers – including the Sultans of the Deccan (Bijapur, Berar, Golconda, AHmednagar and Bidar) and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa. Some of the areas that were incorporated within the empire had witnessed the development of powerful states such as those of the Cholas in Tamil Nadu and the Hoysalas in Karnataka.
Give a detailed account of Trade in the Vijaynagar Empire.
Trade:
As warfare during these times depended upon effective cavalry, the import of horses from Arabia and Central Asia was very important.
In Vijayanagar, Local communities of merchants known as kudirai chettis or horse merchants provided horses to Vijayanagar rulers.
The horse trade was controlled by Arab merchants during the 14th and 15th centuries. The horses would be transported by ship to ports on the western coast and then brought overland to the capital.
By the 16th century the Portuguese established themselves in Goa. They took control of the Arabian sea routes of Africa - India and Arab.They monopolized the horse trade with Vijayanagara.
The Vitthala temple complex, from the late 15th to early 16th century has relief carvings showing Europeans, probably Portuguese, leading horses.
This temple complex has a dedicated bazar, typical of Hampi, where only horses were traded.
Vijaynagar was also noted for its markets dealing in spices, textiles and precious stones. Trade was often regarded as a status symbol for such cities, which boasted of a wealthy population that demanded high-value exotic goods, especially precious stones and jewellery.
Q – What do you understand by the Amar-Nayak system?
The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijaynagar Empire. It is likely that many features of this system were derived from the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate.
Among those who exercised power in the Vijayanagar Empire were military chiefs who usually controlled forts and had armed supporters. These chiefs often moved from one area to another. In many cases, peasants looking for fertile lands, shifted with them.
The amara-nayakas were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the Rayas.
They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftsperson and traders in the area.
They retained part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants. These contingents provided the Vijayanagara kings with an effective fighting force with which they brought the entire southern peninsula under their control.
Some of the revenue was also used for the maintenance of temples and irrigation works.
The amara-nayakassent tribute to the king annually and personally appeared in the royal courtwith gifts to express their loyalty.
Kings occasionally asserted their control over them by transferring them from one place to another.
However, during the course of the seventeenth century, many of these nayakas established independent kingdoms. This hastened the collapse of the central imperial structure.
Describe how the kings of Vijaynagar solved the water problem?
Water resources
The most striking feature about the location of Vijaynagar is the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flows in a north-easterly direction.
A number of streams flow down to the river from these rocky outcrops. In almost all cases, embankments were built along these streams to create reservoirs of varying sizes.
Elaborate arrangements had to be made to store rain water and conduct it to the city. The most important such tank was Kamalapuram tank.
Water from this tank not only irrigated fields nearby but was also conducted through a channel to the “royal Centre”. One of the most prominent waterworks to be seen among the ruins is the Hiriya canal.
Q Explain the descriptions about the forts observed by Abdur Razzaq and Domingo Paes.
Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia was greatly impressed by the fortifications, and mentioned seven lines of forts. These encircled not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests.
The outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the city. The massive masonry construction was slightly tapered.
No mortar or cementing agent was employed anywhere in the construction. The stone blocks were wedge shaped, which held them in place, and the inner portion of the walls was of earth packed with rubble.
What was most significant about this fortification is that it enclosed agricultural tracts.
Abdur Razzaq noted that between the first, second and the third walls there are cultivated fields, gardens and houses.
Paes observed that from this first fort until you enter the city there is a great distance, with fields, many gardens and two lakes. These statements have been corroborated by present-day archaeologists, who have also found evidence of an agricultural tract between the sacredcentre and the urban core.
Q Why do you think agricultural tracts were incorporated within the fortified area?
The objective of medieval sieges was to starve the defenders into submission. These sieges could last for several months and sometimes even years.
Normally rulers tried to be prepared for such situations by building large granaries within fortified areas.
The rulers of Vijaynagar adopted a more expensive and elaborate strategy of protecting the agricultural belt itself.
h. A second line of fortification went round the inner core of the urban complex, and a third line surrounded the royal center, within which each setoff major buildings was surrounded by its own high walls.
Q Describe the town planning in Vijaynagar
Roads in Vijaynagar Empire
The fort was entered through well-guarded gates, which linked the city to the major roads. Archaeologists have studied roads within the city and those leading out from it.
These roads have been identified by tracing paths through gateways, as well as by finds of pavements.
Roads generally wound around through the valleys, avoiding rocky terrain. Some of the most important roads extended from temple gateways, and were lined by bazaars.
The urban core
There is relatively little archaeological evidence of the houses of ordinary people. Archaeologists have found fine Chinese porcelain in some areas, which suggest that these areas may have been occupied by rich traders.
Tombs and mosques located here have distinctive functions, yet their architecture resembles that of the Mandapas found in the temples of Hampi.
The houses of ordinary people are thatched, but nonetheless well-built and arranged according to occupations, in long streets with many open places.
Field surveys indicate that the entire area was dotted with numerous shrines and small temples, pointing to the prevalence of a variety of cults, perhaps supported by different communities.
The surveys also indicate that wells, rainwater tanks as well as temple tanks may have served as sources of water to the ordinary town dwellers.
The Royal Centre in the Vijaynagar
The royal centre was located in the south-western part of the settlement. About 30 building complexes have been identified as palaces. These are relatively large structures that do not seem to have been associated with ritual functions.
One difference between these structures and temples is that the temples were constructed entirely of masonry, while the secular buildings were made of perishable materials.
1. The King's Palace
One of the more distinctive structures in the area was the “king’s palace”, which is the largest of the enclosures but has not yielded definitive evidence of being a royal residence.
The king’s palace has two most impressive platforms, usually called the “audience hall” and the “Mahanavami Dibba”. The entire complex is surrounded by high double walls with a street running between them.
The audience hall is a high platform with slots for wooden pillars at close and regular intervals. It had a staircase going up to the second floor. It is not very clear what the hall was used for.
2. Mahanavami dibba
It is a massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of 40 ft. There is evidence that it supported a wooden structure. The base of the platform is covered with relief carvings.
Rituals associated with the structure or the ceremonies performed in mahanavami dibba on various occasions were -
Worship of the Idols
Worship of the state horses.
Sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals.
Dances, wrestling matches, and processions of horses, elephants and chariots and soldiers.
Ritual presentations before the king and his guests by the chief nayakas and subordinates. On the last day of the festival, the king inspected his army and the armies of the nayakas. On this occasion the nayakas brought rich gifts for the king as well as the stipulated tribute.
3. The Lotus Mahal
One of the most beautiful buildings in the royal Centre is the Lotus Mahal, so named by British travelers in the nineteenth century.
Historians are not quite sure what the building was used for.
According to Mckenzie this may have been a council chamber, a place where the king met his advisers.
4. The Elephant Stable
Another important building in the Royal centre was the Elephant Stables. This building has eleven rooms and beautiful structures over them.
This may have been used for keeping special elephants which were used for king’s family.
5. Hazara Ram Temple
One of the most spectacular temples in the royal center is the Hazara Rama temple. This was probably meant to be used only by the king and his family. The images in the central shrine are missing; however, sculpted panels on the walls have scenes from the Ramayana sculpted on the inner walls of the shrine.
2. While many of the structures at Vijayanagar were destroyed when the city was sacked, traditions of building palatial structures were continued by the nayakas. Many of these buildings have survived.
The Sacred Centre in the Vijaynagar
According to local tradition, the hills near the sacred centre sheltered the monkey kingdom of Bali and Sugriva mentioned in the Ramayana.
Other traditions suggest that Pampa Devi, the local mother goddess, did penance in these hills in order to marry Virupaksha, the guardian deity of the kingdom, who misrecognized as a form of Shiva.
Among these hills are found Jaina temples of the pre-Vijayanagara period as well.
This area was associated with several sacred traditions such as the Pallavas, Chaulukya, Hoysalas and Cholas.
Rulers very often encouraged temple building as a means of associating themselves with the divine.
Temples also functioned as centers of learning. Rulers granted land and other resources for the maintenance of temples. Temples developed as significant religious, social, cultural and economic centres. From the point of view of the rulers, constructing, repairing and maintaining temples were important means of winning support and recognition for their power, wealth and piety.
The Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha. All royal orders were signed Shri Virupaksha”, usually in the Kannada script. Rulers also indicated their close links with the gods by using the title “Hindu Suratrana” this meant Hindu Sultan. सुरत्रण.
The raya-gopurams or royal gateways that often dwarfed the towers on the gateways, which signaled the presence of the temple from a great distance. They were also probably meant as reminders of the power of kings, able to command the resources, techniques and skills needed to construct these towering gateways.
Other distinctive features include Mandapas or pavilions and long, pillared corridors that often ran around the shrines within the temple complex.
A characteristic feature of the temple complexes is the chariot streets that extended from the temple gopurams in a straight line. These streets were paved with stone slabs and lined with pillared pavilions in which merchants set up their shops.
The Virupaksha temple-
The Virupaksha temple was built in the ninth-tenth centuries.
The hall in front of the main shrine was built by Krishna deva Raya to mark his accession. Special programmes of music, dance, drama, etc. are organised in the temple.
Krishnadevaraya is also credited with the construction of the eastern gopuram, the Raya - Gopuram which made the central temple small. Others entrances were used to celebrate the marriages of deities, and yet others were meant for the deities.
The Vitthala temple –
In the Vitthala temple, the principal deity was Vitthala, a form of Vishnu generally worshipped in Maharashtra.
The introduction of the worship of the deity in Karnataka is another indication of the ways in which the rulers of Vijayanagar accepted different traditions.
As in the case of other temples, this temple too has several halls.
This temple has a unique feature that the main shrine is designed like a chariot.
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