Beyond the four Varnas

Beyond the four varnas: Integration

• The Brahmanical texts divided society into four varnas: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. However, there were many social groups that did not fit into this scheme, such as forest dwellers, pastoralists, hunters, gatherers, fishermen, etc.

• These groups were often labelled as “antyaja” (literally meaning “born outside”) or “dasas” (slaves or servants) by the Brahmanical texts. Some of them were also considered as “mlechchhas” (Those who spoke othe languages) by some texts.

• However, some of these groups were integrated into the varna system over time, either by claiming a higher status or by accepting a lower one. For example, some forest dwellers claimed to be Kshatriyas and performed sacrifices to assert their status. Some pastoralists accepted the status of Shudras and paid taxes to the kings. Some hunters and fishermen became part of the Vaishya varna by taking up agriculture or trade.

• The process of integration was not smooth or uniform. It involved negotiations, conflicts and compromises between different social groups and authorities.

Beyond the four varnas: Subordination and conflict

• The Brahmanical texts also prescribed norms of behaviour for different varnas, such as duties, occupations, rituals, food habits, marriage rules, etc. These norms were often oppressive and discriminatory for the lower varnas, especially the Shudras and the antyajas.

• The Shudras were expected to serve the upper three varnas and were denied access to education, property and rituals. The antyajas were considered as “untouchable” and were forced to live on the margins of society. They were assigned menial and polluting tasks such as scavenging, leather work, cremation, etc.

• The Brahmanical texts also justified the subordination of women to men within each varna. Women were expected to be obedient and faithful to their husbands and fathers. They were denied education, property and independence. They were also subject to restrictions on their mobility, dress and food.

• However, there were voices of dissent and resistance against the Brahmanical norms from various sources, such as Buddhist texts, Jain texts, Tamil literature, inscriptions, etc. These sources challenged the authority of the Brahmanas and the varna system. They also advocated alternative values such as equality, compassion, non-violence and renunciation. They also gave space for women to express their views and aspirations.